EFFECT OF PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH AND MASTERY LEARNING APPROACH ON THE INTEREST AND ACHIEVEMENT OF PHYSICS STUDENTS IN LAFIA EDUCATIONAL ZONE OF NASARAWA STATE.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Education is an important and indispensable activity in every society, the importance of education in the society has become very pronounced that people no longer see it as just systemized positive knowledge but as the only gateway to improved standard of living. In the National Policy on Education (NPE), it is recognised that education is the greatest investment that a nation can make for the quick development of its economic, political, sociological and human resources.

Physics is a fundamental science which is concerned with the study of properties and how it interacts to the environment or universe. Physics is also a branch of science that tries to answer some of the hardest question that can be asked about nature and the wonders of the world. Physics as a subject forms the bedrock for socio-economic and technological development of any nation. In our match towards scientific and technological advancement, we need nothing short of good performance in physics at all levels of schooling. Unfortunately performance of students in physics at the end of secondary education has not improved. Various factors have been adduced for poor performance of students in physics. The interest of students in physics have been related to the volume of work completed, students task orientation and skill acquisition, students personality and self concept

(More, 1973), motivation and self-confidence (Aiken, 1976), anxiety (Aiken, 1970), poor facilities, equipment and instructional materials for effective teaching (Odogwu, 1994), use of traditional chalk and talk methods, (Edwards and Knight, 1994), and the shortage of physics teachers.

This is one of the reasons why students fail to pass physics in their examination. In our educational system, the most used method of teaching physics is the traditional method which is also called the lecture method. Traditional way of teaching physics is used in the overwhelming majority of physics courses and has familiar characteristics. Most of the class time involves the teacher lecturing to students; assignments are typically homework problems with short quantitative answers. The lecture method is where the instructor provides information to the students by talking to them. This traditional classroom instruction typically includes notes written by the instructor on a chalkboard with little or no demonstrations of the phenomena. This style of instruction focuses on the instructor as the only active participant in the class. Hence, in a traditional classroom, students are often passive participants. When students are passive participant of a concept, they find it very hard to understand, retain and appreciation the concept. Sunday Adeyemo (2010), stated some essential feature that will help learners easily comprehend physics these are:

1. The method of teaching physics should be guided discovery method instead of the old and routine lecture method used in teaching the subject. This was recommended due to the fact that learning efficiency and effectiveness takes place during explanation and discussion.
2. There should be interaction between the teacher and students, the students will be able to expose their minds and what and when, they find difficult they encounter.
3. It was also recommended that each topic should have a target and specific objectives rob a met at the end of this lesson. This is necessary and important if physics is to be appreciated by the students and community at large. Before a topic could be appreciated, it must have attainable goods and objectives and if these objectives are not met, then it is said to be aimlessly taught and of course, have no contribution to the development of students in terms of cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains and also has nothing to add to the society.
4. It is recommended that emphasis should be placed on theoretical aspect as well as practical aspect of the subject. This is suggested and recommended so that any theory taught in physics could be tested and trusted to be consistent at any considerable situation.

The general objectives of physics curriculum as stated in the curriculum document of 1985 by Federal Ministry of Education (FME) and devised 1998 are to:

1. To provide basic literacy in physics for functional living in the society.
2. To stimulated and enhance creativity.
3. To acquire essential skills and attitudes as a preparation for technological application of physics.
4. To acquire basic concept and principle of physics as preparation for further studies.

The NPE, 2004 editions identified the national educational goals, which derived from philosophy is as follows:

1. The inculcation of national consciousness and national unity.
2. The inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the individuals and the Nigeria society.
3. The training of the mind in the understanding of the world around.
4. The acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and competences both mental and physical as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to the development of the society.

The poor academic achievement in physics could be attributed also to many factors among which teacher’s strategy itself was considered as an important factor. This implies that the mastery of physics concepts might not be fully achieved without the use of instructional materials. The teaching of physics without instructional materials may certainly result in poor academic achievement. Franzer , Okebukola and Jegede (1992) stressed that a professionally qualified science teacher no matter how well trained, would unable to put his ideas into practice if the school setting lacks the equipment and materials necessary for him or her to translate his competence into reality. Oladejo, Olosunde, Ojebisi, Isola, and Olawale (2011). The teaching method that a teacher adopts is one factor that may affect students’ achievement (Mills, 1991). Therefore the use of appropriate teaching method is critical to the successful teaching and learning of physics. Regrettably, most science teachers in a bid to cover their syllabus adopt the lecture based method in teaching (Ali and Akubue, 1998). The lecture method is mainly teacher centred and subject content driven (Liddle, 2002). It discourages initiative, curiosity and creativity in learners and does not offer them opportunity to interact effectively with their peers and learning materials. This has resulted in student’s loss of interest, reduced participation in class and poor learning achievement. It has therefore become apparent that the lecture method, which is currently the predominantly teaching approach in Nigerian secondary schools, is inappropriate and ineffective for achieving the high objectives of the physics education. In the light of this however, it would be necessary to search for more effective strategies which are suitable and efficient for promoting the level of secondary school physics achievement beyond contemporary limits and to the satisfaction of the current physics curriculum requirements. To this end, the use of teaching strategies such as problem-solving approach (PSA) and mastery learning approach (MLA) could help to solve the problem of poor interest and achievement in physics because these strategies have been found to enrich the personal experiences of students. Focusing on this, Nzewi (1993) advocated the use of a more effective method of teaching science; the MLA, no doubt can be one of such technique. MLA is an instructional method where students are allowed unlimited opportunities to demonstrate mastery of content taught (Kibler, 1981). It involves divisions of subject matter into units that have predetermined objectives or unit expectations. The strategy allows students to study materials unit after unit they master it. Mastery of each unit is shown when the students acquire the set pass mark of a diagnostic test. Additional time learning is prescribed for those requiring remediation and students continue to cycle until mastery is met. Mastery learning is committed to criterion referenced evaluation and to a strong emphasis on feedback and corrections throughout the learning experience. The major components of the strategy are: specifying objectives, division of course content, formative diagnostic evaluation, remedial instruction, and summative evaluation.

Problem-solving approach (PSA) involves knowing what to do in the situation of not knowing what to do. Problem-solving is a process which covers a wide range of mental abilities. Students should realize what and why they are doing, and know the strengths of these strategies, in order to understand the strategies completely and be able to select appropriate ones (Telli, Brok, Tekkaya, & Cakiroglu, (2009). In the words of Erdemir, (2009), “Problem-solving also involves a student’s willingness to accept challenges. Accepting a challenge in this context means that the student is willing to find appropriate methods to solve a problem”. Normah and Salleh (2006) discovered that students who can successfully solve a problem possess good reading skills, have the ability to compare and contrast various cases, can identify important aspects of a problem, can estimate and create analogies and attempt trying various strategies. It can be concluded in the words of Hetherington and Parke (1999), “Problem solving involves a higher level of information processing than the other functions and mobilizes perception, attention and memory in a concerted effort to reach a higher goal”.

These strategies intend to find out the effect of problem solving approach and mastery learning approach on the interest and achievement of physics students in secondary schools. These strategies in a way it will develop their problem solving skills as well as their mastering learning skills. These strategies will be tested to see if it has a positive or negative effect on student’s interest and achievement as well as to identify which strategy is more suitable to improve student’s interest and achievement.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The learning process is ineffective without an appropriate teaching methodology. Over the years, it has been shown that the performance in physics at the secondary school levels of education in Nigeria have been poor. The problem of poor student’s achievement in physics in secondary schools which leads to poor interest in physics is due to the method used to teach physics which is the lecture method. In the lecture methods, it is easy to control the context and processing of learning because it is logical and sequential. In fact, this method is a typical example of teacher-centred method. However, we all realise that there are some weaknesses in the lecture method.

This method of teaching has become a problem because it places the burden of promoting learning fully on the teacher that is it is a passive learning activity. The method often leads to surface learning as much of the content is too abstract which leads to boredom in the classroom activities. The students find it hard to relate to real life because they have little opportunity to think which now establishes the “tell me” mind set in the students. Most of the time the topic taught is presented at the teacher’s level of understanding rather than the learners which limit the effectiveness of teaching any topic. Another problem is the ability of the teacher to relate every topic of physics to the student’s environment as well as improvising material where needed to make learning meaningful. Physics is a practically oriented subject that hangs most of its findings on investigations. Even with the unavailability of laboratory materials by the government or school, the teacher should also ensure to be creativity in bring out other materials which can be used to make every topics in physics simple to comprehend and be appreciated by students.

Physics in Nigerian Secondary Schools is taught by a lecture approach alone in 62% of the Secondary Schools there. This is what Tropp (1972) described as a "chalk and talk” teaching approach, from the extensive observation she made while on a trip to Nigeria to study the Secondary School Science programmes in Nigeria. She observed that despite the fact that the West African Examination Council mandated that because of its very empirical nature, physics must be studied by the aid of the laboratory classes, this was not being done. Also, the West African Council on Science Education noted in its 1969 annual report that physics was not being studied or taught with the aid of laboratory activities in Nigerian Secondary Schools. It noted, "Our studies indicate that this attitude is widespread in the vast majority of schools in these countries." Nigerian Secondary School Students who are taught physics by the "chalk and talk" lecture approach have repeatedly demonstrated poor student motivation and achievement in and from their physics education programme. This is evidenced by the poor results in both the in-school teacher-made physics examinations and in the external West African School Certificate physics examinations conducted by the West African Examinations Council for secondary school students planning to graduate at the end of their five year school programme (Ashby, 1970). Ashby described the number and quality of passes in physics from 1966 – 1969 as "extremely unsatisfactory." The problem of poor achievement by Nigerian Secondary School Physics Students is widespread and consistent. It is possible that these Physics candidates did poorly in the Council's physics examination because they were taught this subject by lectures alone rather than by lectures as well as laboratory. Ali (1975) noted, for example, that in 1974, 29% of all the Nigerian Secondary School Students who sat for the West African School Certificate Examination in physics passed this subject. In 1977, the figure of passes in this examination was 28%; even lower than 1974's figure.

Furthermore, Ali (1975) noted that there are considerable data available which suggest that students, probably, do very poorly in physics because the method of teaching they are exposed to, mostly lecture method, does not enable them to go beyond the lowest hierarchy of learning outcomes in physics, the knowledge or factual recall level. The higher hierarchies of cognitive learning applications, analysis, synthesis and evaluation, following Bloom's et al (1964) model arc not attained by physics students taught by lectures. This is probably because lectures do not provide the students the opportunity to comprehend, apply and analyse physics problems. Hence, they probably do poorly in these higher cognitive hierarchies in their secondary school physics examinations.

In other to ensure an increase in the student’s achievement, this project titled “Effect of Problem Solving Approach and Mastery Learning Approach on the Interest and Achievement of Physics students in secondary schools in Lafia Educational zone of Nasarawa state” is aimed determining the learning approaches that is more effective in improving student’s interest and achievement in physics in secondary schools.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The general purpose of this study is to determine the Effect of Problem Solving Approach and Mastery Learning Approach on the Interest and Achievement of Physics students in Lafia Educational zone of Nasarawa state.

Specifically, this study will;

1. To compare the effect of PSA and MLA on students’ academic achievement in physics in secondary schools.
2. To compare the effect of PSA and MLA on students’ interest in physics in secondary schools.
3. Find out the effect of PSA on students’ interest to study physics in secondary schools.
4. Find out the effect of MLA on students’ interest to study physics in secondary schools
5. Find out the effect of PSA on students’ achievement in physics in secondary schools.
6. Find out the effect of MLA on students’ achievement in physics in secondary schools.

1.4 Research Question

In finding out the suitable strategies to solve the problem of poor students’ achievement, the researcher has put forth the following questions;

1. What is the difference between the mean achievement of students taught using PSA and student taught using MLA in physics in secondary schools?
2. What is the difference between the interest of students taught using PSA and student taught using MLA in physics in secondary schools?
3. To what extent does PSA affect the interest of physics students in secondary schools?
4. To what extent does MLA affect the interest of physics students in secondary schools?
5. What is the impact of PSA on students’ achievement in physics in secondary schools?
6. What is the impact of MLA on students’ achievement in physics in secondary schools?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The hypotheses of this study grew directly out of the questions listed above.

Statistically significant difference, at the 0.05 level of confidence, on the post test mean scores would be found on a criterion test, among two groups of randomly sampled secondary School Physics Students who were taught physics by preparatory based method and improvised laboratory method classes versus those taught by lectures method alone.

1. There is no significant difference in the mean rating of students taught physics using PSA and those students taught using MLA.
2. There is no significant difference between the mean achievement of students taught physics using PSA and those students taught using MLA.
3. There is no significant difference in the mean rating of students taught physics using PSA and those students taught using the conventional approach.
4. There is no significant difference between the mean rating of students taught physics using the conventional method and those students taught using MLA.
5. There is no significant difference in the mean achievement of students taught physics using PSA and those students taught using the conventional approach.
6. There is no significant difference between the mean achievement of students taught physics using MLA and those students taught using the conventional approach.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The findings in this study with regards to the different between the effect of PSA and MLA on students’ academic achievement will assist teachers to reveal any inappropriate method used in teaching physics in secondary school.

The result of this study with regards to the effect of PSA and MLA on students’ interest in physics in secondary schools will help the teacher to reveal any possible method that will reduce if not eradicate the poor interests and understanding of physics students in secondary schools.

The findings of this study in regards to the effect of PSA on students’ interest to study physics in secondary schools will help the teachers enhance their teaching methods in a way to arouse the student interest as well as their understanding in physics.

The findings of this study with regards to the effect of MLA on students’ interest to study physics in secondary schools will motivate teachers to adopt these strategies when teaching so as to increase students’ achievement in physics examination.

The findings of this study with regards to the effect of PSA on students’ achievement in physics in secondary schools will

The findings of this study with regards to the effect of MLA on students’ achievement in physics in secondary schools will

1.7 Scope of the Study

This research study covers secondary schools in Lafia educational zone, Nasarawa state which has will be randomly selected. The selected schools are;

1. Government college Lafia
2. ECWA good news secondary school
3. Bethany girls academy
4. Science school Lafia

This study involves senior secondary school students offering physics in Lafia educational zone.

1.8 Definition of Terms

The following are hereby defined in the context of this study;

Effect: This is the actual solution or outcome of an experiment.

Physics: This is a fundamental science which is concerned with the study of properties and how it interacts to the environment or universe.

Achievement: This is an act of obtaining a successful performance.

Education: This is the process of acquiring knowledge either formal or informal so as to improve oneself, the society and standard of living.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviews literature related to the topic under investigation. The review will be carried out with the following sub-headings: Theoretical framework, conceptual framework, related empirical studies, summary of the review and literature appraisal.

2.1 Theoretical Framework

2.1.1 Aristotle’s Theory of Knowledge

The theory of knowledge (Epistemology) originated from Plato. Aristotle was a realist 'a master of many sciences' and the 'Father of Biology'. Aristotle did not agree with Plato theory which he said that knowledge must be certain and infallible (meaning without fault or error). Aristotle’s theory of knowledge was based on his strong belief in logic. Logic for Aristotle was the necessary tool of any inquiry and the syllogism was the sequence that all logical thought follows. He introduced the notion of category into logic and taught that reality could be classified according to several categories—substance (the primary category), quality, quantity, relation, determination in time and space, action, passion or passivity, position, and condition. He developed the first principle of reasoning which was the principle of no-contradiction where he stated that something could not be and be at the same time in the same manner. He considered philosophy to be the discerning of the self-evident, changeless first principles that form the basis of all knowledge. He argued that the possibility of error forces the mind to determine the truth validity of a given statement. This meant that the intellect must adequate reasons, which can ensure the proposed judgement conforms to reality. He believed in the direct observation of nature, and in science he taught that theory must follow fact. Aristotle believed that first there had to be an individual who through germ and seed was able to reproduce another one hence, the seed in the individual would be in potency form because of its capacity to become an individual in future. To make this possible matter (substratum) where this seed with potency could develop under the right condition needed. It was supposed to remain unchangeable but perform its function. Aristotle believed that only individuals could be referred to as being in the full sense of the word. Every individual was a compound of matter and form. Aristotle also taught that knowledge of a thing, beyond its classification and description, requires an explanation of causality, or why it is. He posited four causes or principles of explanation: the material cause (the substance of which the thing is made); the formal cause (its design); the efficient cause (its maker or builder); and the final cause (its purpose or function). In modern thought the efficient cause is generally considered the central explanation of a thing, but for Aristotle the final cause had primacy.

2.1.2 Piaget’s Theoretical Model of Cognitive Development

Piaget (1977) designated, “My main purpose is to continually research biological adaptation mechanisms. These are the epistemological interpretations and analysis of higher adaptation format that can be clearly seen in scientific thinking”. Despite following a completely biological approach, Piaget was a leader in this knowledge theory which was completely compatible with physicists. According to him, “Essential functions of the mind are formed by developing a foundation consisting of understanding and innovation and constructing reality” (Piaget, 1971).

In 1937, Piaget published a book entitled, La construction du reer chez I’enfant (The Construction of reality in the Child) The core of this theory was summarized as follows in a conversation with Jean-Claude Bringuier: “I think that all structures are constructed and the basic picture of this formation and is that neither the structures developed nor those in the outside world are perceived as they are or organized in a person’s mind” (quated Siebert, H. 2002).

Piaget (1953, 1969), in his concept of adaptation states that the development of a person’s intelligence is forged through adaptation and organization. Adaptation is the process of assimilation and accommodation. According to Piaget (1953), assimilation is when children bring new knowledge to their own schemas and accommodation is when children have to change their schemas to “accommodate” the new information or knowledge. This adjustment process occurs when learning as one is processing new information to fit into what is already is one’s memory (Powell, & Kalina, 2009).

In Piaget’s contribution to constructivist theory, during a child’s process of cognitive development they rely upon their perceptions. Piaget’s basis of perception is composed of cognitive configuration and how knowledge is developed in a person. According to Piaget, a child’s view of the world and decisions about reality is different than an adult’s (Ülgen, 1997). Piaget thought that four main periods of development exist during the evolution of a child’s mind. These are as follows:

• Sensori motor Stage: (from 0 to 2 year), in this stage children begin to discover their environment through their own senses and physical activity. For Piaget, a baby’s cognitive development begins with a stage called “circular reactions” during the first two years. Concepts of space and time, object permanence and causality as well as their relationship with one another are formed. Piaget presented an approximate model to demonstrate how these concepts are structured (Piaget 1937).
• Pre-operational Stage: (2 to 7 years); in this stage there is “symbolic function”. Images in children’s minds can be created and they start symbolically depicting one thing as another. During this stage, language development is fast. Another sub-stage of “intuitive thought” is where children are able to describe, through classification, objects or thoughts and see relationships between them.
• Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years), children begin to replace intuitive thought with their own logical reasoning.
• Formal Operational Stage (11 years to adulthood): In this stage, children start using higher levels of thinking or abstract ideas to solve problems. These stages mostly on the general aspects of the development of knowledge. He was not so much interested in education, let alone teaching or conditions for good and effective learning. Piaget’s opinions may help understand how the interaction between a child’s learning and the world works if we look at his stages as a change from one level to another gradually as opposed to suddenly. Piaget’s stages of development are all about the ability to learn at different ages in childhood based on logical development. His theory on assimilation and accommodation all have to do with the children’s ability to construct cognitively or individually their new knowledge within their stages and resolve conflicts (Piaget, 1952).

Recognizing that this process occurs within each individual student at a different rate helps the teacher facilitate constructivist learning. Piaget’s cognitive constructivism theory incorporates the importance of understanding what each individual to get knowledge and learn at his or her own pace (Powell, & Kalina, 2009).

2.1.3 Bruner’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jerome Bruner (1961) had crucial impact on the cognitive approach to instruction. The outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from experience “generic coding system that permits one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions” (Brunner, 1957). Thus, children as they grow must acquire a way of representing the “recurrent regularities” in their environment. He was particularly interested in the cognitive processes of children and how they mentally represented the concepts they were learning in school. To Brunner, the important outcome of learning includes not just the concepts, categories and problem-solving procedures invented previously by the culture but also the ability to “invent” these things for oneself. In the research on cognitive development of children Bruner (1966) proposed three modes or stages of cognitive development: the enactive stage, the iconic stage, and the symbolic stage. The detailed information about these three stages is as follows:

1. Enactive Stage (birth-3): Infants belong to the enactive stage, which is highly similar to Piaget's sensory motor stage. Infants obtain knowledge by actively engaging in activities. Young children need several opportunities to engage in "hands-on" activities with a variety of objects so as to learn effectively. In other words, children need to experience the concrete (manipulating objects in their hands, touching a real dog) in order to understand.

2. Iconic Stage (3-8): First of all, the word icon means "picture". At this stage, learning occurs through using models and pictures. That is, children learn through visual stimuli. At this stage, more or less a reminder of the preoperational stage of Piaget's theory, children rely on visual representations to aid their thinking. Students' visual perceptions determine how they understand the world. Teachers of students in the early grades should use many pictures and visual aids to promote learning. For example, in a lesson on animals, pictures of different species can be used in order to illustrate the differences among them. In a lesson on different countries, pictures of people in different countries might be shown so as to illustrate differences in styles of dress or appearance. This mode deals with the internal imagery, where the knowledge is characterized by a set of images representing the concept. In brief, the iconic representation is based on visual or other sensory association and is primarily defined by perceptual organization and techniques for economically transforming perceptions into meaning for the individual.

3. Symbolic Stage (8-adulthood): This stage refers to the capacity to think in abstract terms. In the symbolic stage, children can understand symbols, including words, mathematical and scientific notations. Bruner's symbolic stage overlaps Piaget's stages of concrete and formal operations. Once students have reached the symbolic stage, they are able to take in large amounts and varied types of information. Symbolic material includes written passages, scientific and mathematical formulas, and abstract charts. If students at this stage are studying a particular country, you could show a bar graph illustrating the pattern of population growth or a pie chart showing the religious or ethnic distribution of the population. It allows one to deal with what might be and what might not, and is a major tool in reflective thinking. To sum up, symbolic- students are able to use logic, higher order thinking skills and symbol systems. Taking the information given above into consideration, it can be summarized that Bruner's underlying principle for teaching and learning is that a combination of concrete, pictorial and symbolic activities will result in more effective learning. The progression is: start with a concrete experience and then move to pictures and finally use symbolic representation. The first, the enactive level, is where the child manipulates materials directly. Then, he proceeds to the iconic level, where he deals with mental images of objects but does not manipulate them directly. Lastly, he moves on to the symbolic level, where he is manipulating symbols and no longer mental images or objects.

Bruner’s (1987, 1990) constructivist theory incorporates many of the ideas offered in previous theories. First, he includes the Paiget’s notion that cognitive development occurs in progressive stages and that each stage is incorporated and built upon by succeeding stages. Bruner also agrees with Piaget in arguing that categorization and representation are keys to an individual’s cognitive development. His ideas can also be linked to those who propose cognitive information processing models in that he suggests development occurs as mental structures become more elaborate and sophisticated through interaction and experience: “learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so” (Kearsley, 2001). He is concerned with the sequence of representation (the stages), but he is equally concerned with the role of culture on cognitive development.

There is one fundamental difference between Bruner’s (1987) theory and Piaget’s (2001) theories. First, stage theories maintain that cognitive readiness is the key to learning and development. According to these, age or biological state dictates what can be learned and how learning can occur. Constructivist theory says that it is the translation of the information that dictates what type of information can be processed and how learning can occur. Piaget would say that an individual cannot process certain types of information at certain ages or stages, but Bruner disagrees, stating that certain aspects of any content or principle can be taught to any child. It will likely be necessary, however, to revisit these as the individual acquires more knowledge and capacity.

Bruner (as cited in Anderson, 1998) said that “To perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to categorize.” It is clear from this statement that Bruner believes that the ability to compare new stimuli with existing structures is critical to learning and development. In fact, the inability to interpret information based on existing mental structures would lead to a failure to adapt higher, more sophisticated mental structures and, hence, to fail to develop cognitively. In regard to this comparison, Bruner’s theory suggests that children must develop ways to represent recurrent regularities in their environment. This representation system is developed through the building and establishment of progressively more sophisticated and specific mental schemes or structures (Driscoll, 2000).

2.1.4 Robert Gagne Theory of Learning Hierarchy

Gagne’s theory of learning hierarchy states that the learning of a new concept or skill depends upon the mastery of perquisite concept or skills. This means that any knowledge can be acquired by learners who already have certain prerequisite. Gagne believes that prior knowledge may determine what further learning may occur. He emphasised that the importance of task analysis of instructional objectives. He believes in tasks analysis of the concepts, skills and knowledge taught. Gagne believes that learning structure which results from task analysis is a system of learning hierarch of intellectual operation.

Gagne (1932), stated that materials to be learnt must be sequentially structured by the teacher from simple to complex until the desired objectives is achieved. Problem solving is the highest level of learning in Gagne’s hierarch of learning. The lowest level involves facts, concepts and generalisation. Learning should proceed from simple to complex. Gagne suggest that in a teaching situation the teacher should begin with a question like “What is it that I want the learner to be able to do?” This objective must be stated in behavioural form. According to Gagne, learning occurs when the learner is capable to do something which he/she was originally unable to do. According to Gagne, science teacher need to state specifically the objectives for learning any material and learning tasks have to be sequentially organized so that learning can take place.

Out of these theoretical frameworks, the Brunner’s theory of cognitive development is the theory which this work rely on. This is so because Brunner’s theory was a combination of the views of different philosopher which talked about the stages of cognitive development that involves how an individual understand a particular concept which is related to the environment that makes learning concrete.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

A great number of studies have been carried out to investigate the most effective teaching strategy on the interest and achievement in physics.

2.2.1 The Nature of Physics

According to the Wikipedia Encyclopaedia (2000), physics as a science subject attempts to describe the natural world by the application of the scientific method. As a science subject, physics provides for the basic knowledge and understanding of principles whose application contributes greatly to the quality of life in a technologically based society. Physics is one of the basic science subject (Abbort 1997). This implies that there exist a strong link between progress in physics and technological development. Burch (1987), in his contribution reported that “ It is true that physics is basic to all other sciences, if you analyze and scientific problem to its fundamentals, you will find that solution is found on physical principles.” Physics has contributed to Engineering, Chemistry, Structural design and Geology. Furthermore, physics according to Mankilik (2007) are often employed by Engineers, Technicians and Doctors. Some of the products of application of physics can be seen in the construction of land, air, sea, vehicles, telephones, and global satellite mobile (GSM) bridges and so on. He went further to say that physics has been and will continue to be of tremendous importance to humanity for its ability to explain natural phenomena and everyday occurrences. For example, the ability of scientists to use the principles of physics to determine when a volcano, earthquake, tornado will occur has been able to help man prepare for such eventualities. It can also be appreciated that physics contributes to the technological infrastructure and provide trained personnel needed to take advantage of scientific advances and discoveries. Physics improves the quality of life by proving and providing the basic understanding necessary for medical application, such as computer topography, magnetic resonance, emission topography, ultrasonic and laser surgery. It offers learners opportunity to think critically and analytically.

2.2.2 Importance of Physics

According to Till (1971) reliance on science and technology is immeasurable. ‘Literacy in science is essentially for every man and woman who hopes to function efficiently in our twentieth century society. It will enable the individual in a rapidly changing environment to make intelligent choices about his/her personal well being. It will provide him/her with a basis for judging and taking action on issues related to science that affects every citizen” In this vein physics is very crucial in understanding the world around us, the world in us and world beyond us. It challenges our imaginations with concepts that lead to great discoveries that change one’s life. For example, in the lives of Bill Gates inventing the computers and Ben Carson with the surgery on Siamese twins.

Kostyuk (2004) Physics is the theoretical foundation of engineering. The importance of physics isn’t limited to the hard science. “Increasingly, physicists are turning their talents to molecular biology, biochemistry biology itself and medicine.

2.2.3 The Senior Secondary School Physics Curriculum

The current curriculum contents in physics for the senior secondary schools in Nigeria was derived from the developed word CESAC and presented to a national critique workshop in December 1984. Many other bodies usually involved in curriculum development took part in production of the document that went through the “mill” before its final approval by NPE in July 1985.

Indeed the meaning of curriculum is difficult to pinpoint, and so according to Ema Ema and Ajayi (2001), curriculum can be defined as that which is carefully planned considering the culture of the society, needs of the culture, their religions, socio-economic background to enable the learner acquire specific objectives. Three factors have been emphasised in the senior secondary school physics curriculum content by Ivowi (1990) and these factors, are understanding of concepts, functions and application. Ability to explain concepts and principles and to apply them in a given situation is needed in the programme because of the crucial role which physics plays in the development of science and technology, which is the use of functional equipment in order to acquire relevant skill. A high degree of accuracy is not actually essential at this stage because the complete reliance on the precision of the instrument used is needed to stress the overall effect of applications and functions to enhance the understanding of the concepts been taught. Adamu (1990) tends to suggest that sufficient clarity has not been made in the specification of the purposes and the methods of their achievement. According to him many teachers may not specifically understand the learning behaviours and the intentions for which the curriculum was developed.

2.2.4 Relevance of Instructional Methods in Teaching Sciences

The teaching of science is carried out in such a manner as to help the learner to understand their environment (Santrock, 2004). The acquired knowledge enables the learner to solve problems encountered in daily life. Hence the teaching of sciences should heighten the curiosity of the learners so as to enable them to undertake scientific enquiry and also enhance their imaginations, initiatives and involvement (Germann, 1991). Scientific knowledge is also meant to enable the learners to appreciate the place of science in the world at large and form and develop a scientific view of it. In his study on the role of instructional approaches, Chapman (2000) notes that learner achievement is highly influenced by the instructional methods employed by the teachers. Santrock (2004) is of the view that instructional methods that are captivating lead to better acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes. According to Nashon (2004), the choice of appropriate teaching methods enables the learner to participate in the learning process, which in turn boosts learner competence in the subject. Mulei (1985) contends that learner participation is boosted when the method of instruction captures learner’s interests, their cultural background and learning styles. Chiapetta and Koballa (2006) suggest that the learning of science helps the learner to understand the method of acquiring the scientific knowledge such as the use of data and the practice of logical, objective, analytical and critical thinking. The acquired knowledge helps the learner in the acquisition of the process skills such as ability to devise and carry out experiments, observe and record data, reach conclusions, draw generalizations and to test these observations (Kauchak & Eggen, 1998). The learner is also in a position to use plain and concise knowledge to clarify and evaluate information, as he/she employs mathematics where necessary. The teaching of Physics involves the emphasis of either the teacher centered or learner-centered approaches. In the traditional approach, the teacher uses the talk and chalk method (Mulei, 1985). The use of chalk and talk method has been found unsuitable, as it does not train students in the attainment of the scientific skills (Head, 1999). To bridge this gap, new trends and changes in the teaching and learning of Physics were introduced so as to encompass the teaching of the subject in a clear and relevant context (Sotto, 2002). Wellington (2000) contends that content should be a matter of concern for both learners and teachers. White (1993) is of the view that showing the learner the contemporary application of Physics can help in achieving the goal of understanding the contextual framework. Relevance can also be achieved by using learner’s’ prior knowledge.

The achievement of the goals indicated in any curriculum to a large extent depends on the pedagogical approaches used by the teachers. Mulei (1985) observes that poor implementation of science curriculum leads to poor academic performance by the learners. According to Twoli (1986), learners do not achieve as well as they ought to in the sciences because of the problems related to the teaching-learning process. Amadalo (1998) also observes that ineffective teaching methods in science lead to low achievements by the learners. Hodson (1998) is of the view that effective curriculum implementation is necessary if a country is going to make headway in the growth of science and technology. Embeywa (1987) notes that use of didactic approach which involves chalk and talk method denies the learners a chance of acquiring the necessary scientific skills in the study of the subject. Ineffective methods of teaching sometimes arise from ineffective preparation by the teachers. This may be traced to either negative attitude or to lack of proper training. Iraki (1994) observes that most graduate teachers from the universities perform poorly immediately after they graduate but improve their skills as they continue to gain teaching experience. Ongosi (2007) contends that inquiry method is effective in teaching Physics as it involves active participation of the learners. These methods engage the learners in investigating the nature of the sciences. Inquiry is a set of behaviours involved in the struggle of human beings for reasonable explanation of phenomena about which they are curious about, hence leading to discovery of new ideas (Chiapetta & Koballa, 2006). The rationale for this emphasis is that learners develop a better understanding of the nature of science and become more interested when they are actively involved in the learning process (Mukachi, 2006). This method helps the learners to acquire the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes that are essential in national development (Changeiywo, 2007).

2.2.5 Existing Methods of Teaching Physics

There are several methods of teaching Physics. The selection of the method used depends on several factors that include the topic under study, objectives to be achieved, nature of learners, availability of resources and the teacher’s willingness to improvise where the resources are inadequate. The succeeding section discusses these methods in relation to the teaching of Physics.

2.2.5.1 The Project Method in Teaching Physics

The project method is based on the strong conviction that learning by doing is of great importance to learners. According Helm & Lillian (2001), learners gain better understanding and learn new ideas from experiences, and therefore, the use of project method provides a good example where learners are actively engaged in the learning process. This engagement involves an in depth investigation of a topic which sometimes culminates in making a scientific device in application to the knowledge learnt. According to Howell and Mordini (2003), Physics teachers use the project method as a means of teaching technical skills, tool use, and problem solving as it provides an excellent means for increasing student participation in the learning process. This has led to paradigm shift in Physics education whereby teaching has moved from teacher dominance where the teacher was the centre of the learning process to learner-centered approach where the teacher’s role is to guide and facilitate the learning process. This paradigm change has caused a debate and a split in the profession related to the methods used to teach Physics. An overriding question the physics teacher needs to askis, "Has this paradigm shift been beneficial to students learning Physics?" The project method is a teacher-facilitated collaborative approach in which students acquire and apply knowledge and skills to define and solve realistic problems using a process of extended inquiry (Validya, 2003). It is also referred to as Project-Based Learning as it involves the making of actual projects by the students. Projects are student-centered, following standards, parameters, and milestones clearly identified by the instructor. Students have control over the planning, refining, presenting, and reflecting of the project. Through projects, students are engaged in innovation and creativity (Katz, 1994). Project-based learning involves assignments that call for students to produce something, such as a process or product design, a computer code or simulation, or the design of an experiment and the analysis and interpretation of the data. The culmination of the project is normally a written or oral report summarizing what was done and what the outcome was (Wambugu & Changeiywo, 2008). Projects are usually done by student teams but they may also be assigned to individuals to avoid many logistical and interpersonal problems but also cut down on the range of skills that can be developed through the project. The challenge of project method is to define projects with a scope and level of difficulty appropriate to the class, and if the end product is a constructed device or if the project involves experimentation, the appropriate equipment and laboratory and shop facilities must be available (Sood, 1989).

2.2.5.2 Lecture Method in Teaching Physics

According to Amadalo (1998), lecture-based instruction is best for students on a normal science teaching because it presents new and complicated information in a traditional and familiar light. This method is commonly used by the Physics teachers as it presents a large amount of content within a short period of time (Twoli, 1986). The instructor will need to prepare extensive notes on each concept that includes a graphic organizer, or visual note sheet, for the student. Providing the student with information both orally and visually is a vital part of instruction. In his study on the use of graphics in the teaching and learning process, Owino (2000), notes that their use alongside the lecture method enhances the learning process. This contention concurs with the findings of Amadalo (1998) who notes that Physics concepts are better visualized not only through explanation but when they are well-illustrated. Graphic organizers allow students to follow along with the lecture and build their understanding of each concept with the instructor. Lecture-based instruction is especially effective for teaching the history of Physics and other fact-based information, like good information of the study of important events in Physics; including prominent personalities such as Sir Isaac Newton and Marie Curie who made significant contribution to the study of Physics.

2.2.5.3 Practical and Laboratory Work as Teaching Method

Millar (1994) defines practical work as any teaching and learning activity which involves at some point the students in observing or manipulating real objects and materials. Practical work enables the students to act in a scientific manner. According to Parkinson (1991), laboratory work helps in inducing scientific attitude in students, develops problem-solving skills and improves conceptual understanding. Besides developing critical thinking skills, it creates motivation and interest for learning. (Glass, 2007) Twoli (1986) notes that the practical work performed in schools has failed in achieving its objectives. This happens when the laboratory work was performed in haste and without integrating it to theoretical knowledge. Hodson (1998) refers to the same issue and terms the practical work at school as ill-conceived and unproductive. According to him, the practical work contributes little to the students’ learning in science. Van Driel et al. (2001) observe in their research study that the past efforts towards improving teachers’ practical knowledge fail because they not take into account the teachers’ existing knowledge, beliefs and attitudes. Science teachers while, performing practical activities integrate their experience, formal knowledge and personal beliefs. To improve teachers’ practical skills, long-term professional development programmes are required to be planned. Some strategies in this direction may be learning in networks, peer coaching, collaborative action research and the use of cases. Wellington (2000) discusses that laboratory work instills confidence in the students besides teaching them practical skills. They develop observational skills and are able to solve similar problems if confronted in everyday life. The use of laboratory work helps in understanding the concepts and creates interest among the students for seeking knowledge.

2.2.6 Strategies for Effective Learning in Physics

The strategies used for learning of Physics are seen from different perspectives which includes;

2.2.6.1 The Traditional Approach

The traditional methods which are characterized by teacher dominance in the learning process or the traditional methods which involve active participation of the learners (Embeywa, 2005). The traditional methods emphasize the product content of the sciences (Mulei, 1985) while the process of acquiring scientific knowledge involves problem identification, collection and analysis of data, making conclusions and generalizations. According to Jevon (2005), the traditional method involves excessive belief in objectivity and universality of science and in the accumulation of the scientific knowledge. Mulei (1985) notes that the traditional method leads to rote learning which led to low level learning. According to Aikenhead and Kleeves (1999), the traditional method is criticized as it leads to rote learning where learners are not able to apply the scientific knowledge gained in daily life. The works of Piaget (1959), Brunner (1960), and Gagne (1970) in the development of cognitive science spearhead the attack on rote learning which dominate the traditional science. They call for active participation of the learner in the process of the acquisition of scientific knowledge. Wellington (2000) calls for the introduction of process based learning where learners are actively involved in the learning process. Supporting this change of teaching approach, Graham (1979) noted that the traditional approach in science should be replaced by the modern methods which treat science not only as an accumulation of facts but an experience on investigation and discovery and aim to stimulate an enquiring and analytical mind.

2.2.6.2 Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) in Physics

The shortcoming of the traditional approach led to the introduction of the inquiry-based learning (Maundu, 1997). According to Mulei (1985), inquiry-based learning involves active participation of the learners in the process of scientific thinking, investigation and construction of knowledge. Germann (1991), contends that inquiry based learning allows learners to conduct their own investigations so as to arrive at their own conclusions and generalizations. Inquiry-based learning emanates from the work of John Dewey (1938) who puts the learner at the centre of learning process where the teacher acts as a facilitator, guide, motivator, and supervisor. Dewey explains that inquiry based learning involves defining the problem, formulating hypotheses, data collection and analysis, interpreting results and arriving at conclusions. In this method, learners learn facts, concepts, principles, responsibility and social communication skills. This knowledge allows the learner to assimilate and accommodate information. In her comparative analysis of learners’ attitude towards inquiry and non-inquiry teaching methods, Mulei (1985) asserts that learners become active participants in the acquisition of knowledge when inquiry-based method is used.

2.2.6.3 Problem Based Learning (PBL) in Physics

In problem-based learning, learners make investigation of a given concept before they learn the pre-requisite knowledge with their teachers Chapman (2000) found that Problem Based Learning yields better results in the teaching of sciences if used effectively. Problem Based Learning originated, and is extensively practiced, in medical education and other health related disciplines (Brown, 1992). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of problem-based learning was published by Dochy et al. (2003). Their results suggest that students may acquire more knowledge in the short term when taught conventionally but are likely to retain knowledge longer when taught with problem-based learning. The results for skill development consistently favour PBL instruction. Problem-based learning is arguably one of the most difficult approaches to implement of all the inductive teaching methods (Glass, 2007). It is time-consuming to construct authentic open-ended problems whose solution requires the full range of skills specified in the instructor’s learning objectives, so instructors are advised to use problems that have already been developed and tested, if such problems can be located. PBL gives students the responsibility of defining the knowledge and skills they need to proceed with in each phase of the problem, and so instructors must be prepared to go into directions that may not be familiar or comfortable (Tonny and Matt, 2009). Problem Based Learning involves a spectrum of instructional features likely to provoke student resentment and resistance, including complex problems that have no unique solutions, the need for students to define for themselves what they need to know to solve them, and the logistical and interpersonal problems that inevitably arise when students work in teams. Instructors who lack the subject knowledge and self-confidence that normally come only with extensive experience and training could easily find themselves overwhelmed by the negative responses of their students (Monk, 2006). However, much is not known on the effectiveness of this method in the teaching of Physics.

2.2.6.4 Case-Based Teaching in Physics

In case-based teaching, students study historical or hypothetical cases involving scenarios likely to be encountered in professional practice. Students are challenged to explore their existing preconceptions and modify them to accommodate the realities of the cases (Massey, 1999). Compared to typical problems used in problem-based learning, cases tend to be relatively well structured and rich in contextual details, and students apply material that is already somewhat familiar (Morris, 2001). Cases are most commonly thought of in the context of law and management science education, but they have also been used extensively in science (Tonny and Matt, 2009). The key to case-based instruction is having cases that are clear and realistic and encompass all of the teaching points the instructor wishes to convey. Constructing such cases can be extraordinarily time-consuming. Studies have shown that relative to conventional teaching, case-based instruction significantly improves student retention (Trowbridge at el, 1991), reasoning and problem-solving skills (Woolnough, 1994; Nashon, 2004), higher-order skills on Bloom’s taxonomy (Vygotsky, 2008), the ability to make objective judgments (White, 1993), the ability to identify relevant issues and recognize multiple perspectives (Tonny and Matt, 2009), and awareness of ethical issues (Matt and Tonny, 2009). Lundeberg and Yadav (2006) carried out a meta-analysis and concluded that cases have a positive impact on faculty and student attitudes, class attendance, and faculty perceptions of learning outcomes. They also note that the reported comparisons of the effectiveness of case studies versus traditional instruction depend strongly on the assessment tasks and that “the higher the level of knowledge and thinking required on the assessment task, the more likely that case-based teaching will produce greater gains in student understanding.” Studies on the effect of case-based instruction on the acquisition and recall of factual knowledge are inconclusive (Nashon, 2008).

2.2.6.5 Discovery Learning in Physics

In discovery learning, students are confronted with a challenge and left to work out the solution on their own (Bruner, 1960). The instructor may provide feedback in response to student efforts but offers little or no direction before or during those efforts. The lack of structure and guidance provided by the instructor and the trial and error consequently required of students are the defining features for discovery learning relative to other inductive methods. This extreme form of inductive teaching was developed for pre-college education and has rarely been used in undergraduate classes, and there is little empirical evidence for its effectiveness in that setting. (There is significant evidence for the benefits of involving undergraduate students in independent research (Robinson, 2007), but undergraduate research does not usually qualify as discovery learning because the advisor typically provides significant structure and guidance.) More common than pure discovery are variants such as guided discovery, in which the instructor provides some structure and support (Parkinson, 1994). Depending on the nature of the initial challenge and the extent of the guidance, these variants would typically fall into one or another of the other categories that follow.

2.2.6.6 Mastery Learning Approach (MLA)

The Mastery Learning Approach requires students to study a given concept until they have fully mastered the knowledge and skills involved. Ndirangu (2000) compares the effects of mastery learning approach and regular teaching methods on student achievement in physics and noted that MLA produced superior results. According to Kibler et al (1995), mastery learning significantly increases learner achievement. Wellington (2000) compared mastery learning and non-mastery learning as to how feedback relates to achievement and found out that students who received feedback in MLA had higher achievement scores for both immediate achievement and long-term retention. However, he noted that the time spent towards instruction showed no significant difference in learner achievement. Apart from feedback, the other aspect of MLA that receives attention is time. Mastery Learning theorist especially Bloom (1984) contends that MLA reduces the amount of time needed to achieve mastery of content. A research conducted by Arlin and Webster (1983) on achievement, time and learning rate found that use of MLA significantly raises achievement levels but the time needed for this increase is considerable. Wachanga and Gamba (2004), in their study on effects of using MLA on secondary school students’ achievement in chemistry found that MLA facilitated students learning chemistry better than the regular teaching method. This agrees with Ngesa (2002) who reports that MLA resulted in higher student achievement in agriculture than the regular teaching method. He argues that the results were significant with regard to classroom instruction and teacher education in agriculture. Mastery Learning Approach allows students to have enough time to master the prerequisites before making progress. However, Mills et al (2005) raises an important issue regarding the use of instructional time in Mastery Learning; he argues that low achievers in grouped Mastery Learning do better because of corrective instruction, but faster students may be slowed down waiting for the other students. This will require the physics teacher to be willing to use the time outside the normal school timetable for corrective procedures and retesting. Peer tutoring is encouraged in and out of class time where the students checked each other for mastery (Mosure, 2005). They tutor one another and verify that everyone masters the sub-topic and was ready for the test. Mastery Learning Approach assumes that virtually all students can learn what is taught in school if their instruction is approached systematically and students are helped when and where they have learning difficulties (Bloom, 1984). With careful preparation and greater flexibility, all students can be appropriately accommodated according to their respective levels of understanding and they can progress at their own rate (Kibler et al., 1995).

2.2.7 Students’ Achievement of Physics

Joyce & Weil (1980), conceptual framework which was based on system approach holds that the teaching and learning process has inputs and outputs. To achieve good results then the inputs must have suitable materials. The study was also based on the assumption that the blame for a students’ failure rests with the quality of instruction and not lack of student’s ability to learn.

Bloom (1981) and Levine (1985) framework shows the relationship of variables for determining the effects of using mastering learning approach on secondary school students’ achievement in Physics. Learning outcomes are influenced by various factors. These include: learner characteristics, classroom environment and teacher characteristics. These are extraneous variables which needed to be controlled. Teacher training determine the teaching approach a teacher uses and how effective the teacher will use the approach. The learners’ age and hence their class determine what they are taught. The type of school as a teaching environment affects the learning outcomes. The study involved trained Physics teachers to control the teacher variable. The type of school used was coeducational to control the effect of the classroom environment. Form Two students who are approximately of the same age were involved in the study. In this study therefore the teaching method used influenced the learning outcomes.

The importance of Physics as one of the basic Sciences in human and societal development cannot be over-emphasized. Physics is the basis of modern technology. Physics based technology is a ground of manufacturing industries. It helps us to study the universe, connect to things and to understand how our environment works. Its laws, facts, theories and principles make us interact better with our surrounding. Inventions of cars, air conditioners, mobile phones, lights, laptops, fans, air buses, micro waves are all made possible through the application of its principles. Based on these benefits, governments of nations, Nigeria inclusive, have laid more emphasis on the study of physics and other Science subjects in our schools. However, students’ dwindling performance in physics in public examinations is so worrisome and this has led many researchers into investigating the factors that could be responsible for this. Among the variables identified are: Students’ poor study habit, low self-esteem, teacher factors like poor teaching methods, shortage of qualified teachers, Inadequate teaching facilities in Schools, home and school environmental factors, and so on (Oludipe, 2002; 2008; Aluko,2010; Ifesanwo, 2012; Lawal, 2012; Omotayo, 2012).

2.2.8 Enhancing Learner’s interest via Motivation

Motivation is a force that energizes, directs and maintains behaviour toward a goal (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Motivation and learning are believed to be interdependent: motivation needs to be taken into account in understanding how people learn (Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle,1993). Weinstein (1998) even argues that “… motivation to learn lies at the very core of achieving success in schooling. … a continuing motivation to learn may well be the hallmark of individual accomplishment across the life span”. In more detail, there are several effects of motivation on learning. Motivation directs actions toward goals (Maehr & Meyer, 1997; Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle, 1993). Motivation increases the amount of effort and energy in the course of reaching the goal (Csikszentmihalyi &Nakamura, 1989; Maehr, 1984; Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle, 1993). It also increases initiation of the actions and persistence in the efforts (Maehr, 1984). More importantly, motivation enhances cognitive processing: motivated learners tend to pay attention and learn new information in a meaningful fashion (Eccles & Wigfield, 1985; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Voss & Schauble, 1992). As a result of these effects, motivation improves performance. High motivated learners are high achievers (Gottfried, 1990; Schiefele, Krapp, & Winteler, 1992; Walberg & Uguroglu, 1980) while low-motivated learners tend to drop out from school (Hardre & Reeve, 2001; Hymel, Comfort, Schonert-Reichl, & McDougall, 1996; Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997). Because motivation is an extensive and complex issue, researchers and theorists have different views on motivation, two of which are relevant to this thesis: behavioural and cognitive views of motivation. Behaviourists consider motivation as a change in behaviour as a result of experience with the environment (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Learners are motivated to perform certain behaviours because of reinforcement such as praise, comments, grades or other forms of recognition. Behavioural view of motivation has a number of criticisms. Some educators perceive that instruction should nurture learners’ intrinsic motivation and rewards may reduce learners’ interest in intrinsically motivating activities (Kohn, 1996; Ryan & Deci, 1996). In addition, learners’ responses to a situation depend not only on how they were reinforced in the past, but also on their current beliefs, expectations and other factors.

Cognitive psychologists consider that human beings naturally tend to make sense of themselves, their environment and the world. People are motivated to restore equilibrium when new information is not consistent with their existing knowledge structure, as in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. The motivation to understand the way the world works, which ultimately leads to the growth of knowledge, is also influenced by other factors such as perceptions, beliefs, expectations, values, interests, goals and attributions.

2.2.8.1. Cognitive theories of motivation

The discrepancy between new information and present understanding is not the only factor which motivates learners to improve their knowledge. Learners’ characteristics in terms of how they perceive themselves and the tasks they have to perform also play an important role in making sense of motivation. Some of these characteristics are: self-efficacy or a perception about one’s ability to do a task (Bandura, 1986), goal or outcome that an individual is trying to achieve (Locke & Latham, 1990), attribution or individual’s explanations, justifications, and excuses for his/her success or failure (Weiner, 1992), and self-determination or the need to choose and control one’s actions (Deci & Ryan, 1992; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Another characteristic which is relevant to the analysis in later chapters is expectancy × value. Motivation is a product of expectancy and value: people are motivated to engage in an activity to the extent that they expect to reach a goal multiplied by the value of the goal to them (Wigfield & Eccles, 1992, 2000). Expectation to succeed is affected by the perceived task difficulty, the availability of resources and support, the quality of instruction, the amount of effort involved, and the perception about oneself or self-schemas (Dweck & Elliott, 1983; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992; Zimmerman, Bandura, Martinez-Pons, 1992). Self-schemas include the perception of one’s cognitive resources and personality (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). The value of accomplishing a task is influenced by one’s intrinsic interest, the extent to which the task actualizes one’s self-schemas and the utility of the task for meeting future goals (Wigfield & Eccles, 1992). There are numerous teaching strategies associated with the five characteristics mentioned above to improve motivation in different levels of education. In elementary to high school classrooms, instructors have more opportunities to address all factors than in tertiary settings where learners are expected to know better and to take more responsibility of their learning.

Motivated or interested learners display significant cognitive engagement in what they learn (Pintrich, Garcia, & De Groot, 1994; Stipek, 1996) because interest influences attention, comprehension, and achievement (Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger, 1992; McDaniel, Waddill, Finstad, & Bourg, 2000; Mayer, 1998b). There are many possible ways a classroom instruction can be designed to make learning interesting. Learning activities and materials essentially should arouse learners’ curiosity, present inconsistent or discrepant information, include variety and novelty, encourage fantasy and make-believe, reflect instructors’ own enthusiasm, promote learners’ involvement (for example by using open-ended questioning, hands-on activities, group-work, and peer instruction), and relate to learners’ experiences (personalization) because it is intuitively sensible and widely applicable, thus giving a sense of control and meaningful (Anand & Ross, 1987; Baron, 1998; Brophy, 1987, 1996, 1999; Bruning, Schraw, & Ronning, 1999; Deci, 1992; Deci & Ryan, 1992; Hidi & Anderson, 1992; Hidi, Weiss, Berndorff, & Nolan, 1998; Kauchak & Eggen, 2003; Lepper & Hodell, 1989; Mazur, 1997; Moreno & Mayer, 2000; Ross, 1988; Skinner, 1995; Skinner, Wellborn, & Connell, 1990; Wade, 1992; Zahorik, 1994). These examples of strategies to make learning more interesting emphasize learners’ roles to build their knowledge and require the inclusion of real-life materials.

2.2.9 Self Developed Packaged teaching strategies (SDPTS)

The concept Self Developed Packaged teaching strategies imply teaching strategies that enable individuals to develop their own goal – directed learning processes. It does not only provide individual learning but also gives an opportunity for students to actively engage in the learning process. Therefore SDPTS are important strategies to enhance students’ spontaneous psychological activity and active participation, so that they can actively explore and think, and further more construct their own knowledge.

2.3 Related Empirical Studies

Evanson M. Muriithi (2013), carried out a research on the topic impact of project method on learner’s academic achievement in physics in provincial public secondary schools. The research was carried out because he saw that the learning process is ineffective without an appropriate teaching methodology. He also saw that Physics teachers were not competent in teaching science through activity methods. In most cases, science teachers have been known to encourage students to ask questions during class and participate in classroom discussions so as to make them actively involved in the lesson. From his research findings, the researcher concluded that the use of project method boosts learner achievement in physics as it inculcates the required physics knowledge, skills and values in the learners in a better way compared to the use of lecture and discussion methods. This was evidenced by the superior grades achieved by learners exposed to project method. The project method enables learners to gain knowledge through the activities taken. He also added that the use of project method enables the learners to utilize the knowledge gained in a better way in solving daily problems in life and to enable the learner to acquire scientific skills. Teachers of higher academic qualifications produced higher scores than those of lower academic qualifications. This shows that training imparts the necessary skills for teaching. This was evident as teachers with higher academic qualifications tended to use project method more than those with lower qualifications. Teacher education is therefore necessary as it prepares teachers for their noble job of teaching. He came up with the conclusion that both male and female teachers were comfortable using the project method implying that teachers use project method irrespective of their gender. This implies that both male and female teachers have almost the same chance of using the project method. Availability and proper use of learning resources enhances the teaching of Physics. This is evidenced by the fact that teachers reported that schools with proper and adequate resources will boost their chances of using project method which eventually boosts learner achievement in Physics.

Femi Adetunji Adeoye (2010) carried out a research on the topic effects of problem-solving and cooperative learning strategies on senior secondary school students’ achievement in physics. His study was carried out because he saw that the lecture method, which is currently the predominantly teaching approach in Nigerian secondary schools, is inappropriate and ineffective for achieving the high objectives of the physics education. In the light of this however, it would be necessary to search for more effective strategies which are suitable and efficient for promoting the level of secondary school physics achievement beyond contemporary limits and to the satisfaction of the current physics curriculum requirements. To this end, the use of teaching strategies such as problem-solving and cooperative learning could help to solve the problem of poor achievement in physics because these strategies have been found to enrich the personal experiences of students. After the experiment, the result of significant interaction effect of treatment and gender on physics achievement simply suggests that the effects of using cooperative learning strategy followed by problem solving strategy while teaching physics seems to be students gender sensitive. The reported interaction is such that students exposed to cooperative learning strategy (E2) followed by problem solving strategy (E1) performed better than their counterparts in the conventional/traditional method group irrespective of the student’s gender. In addition, figure 1, shows that the differential effect of treatments taking together (i.e. E1, E2 & C) on physics achievement across the students’ gender group was such that the impact was more on male than female. That is, the differences that exist in the scores of male students in the three groups are more than that of the female students. Nevertheless, the experiment revealed that both male and female students exhibited highest achievement under cooperative learning strategy (males= 38, females = 31) as against their achievement under problem solving strategy (males = 20, females = 29) and the conventional/traditional method (males = 19, females = 17). It also shows that male students appear to benefit more from cooperative learning than female students; while female students tend to benefit more from problem-solving strategy than male students. That is, the male students have advantages over their female counterparts in cooperative learning strategy while the reverse is the case in the problem-solving strategy. Both male and female students in the control group were at disadvantage when compared with their colleagues in other two groups. These are irrespective of the tendency for both male and female students to exhibit highest performance in physics when exposed to cooperative learning strategy. Based on the results of his study, he came up with the conclusion that the use of cooperative learning strategy as the most suitable method for teaching physics and hence it should be preferred. It is obvious from the results of this study that improved learning ability of male and female students depends on their exposure to many teaching strategies. Therefore, in order to improve senior secondary school males and females learning ability in physics, all the stakeholders in teaching and learning should embrace the cooperative learning strategy in our schools. In view of these findings, the idea of the physics teachers limiting students to only conventional/traditional method should be discouraged. Physics teachers should encourage team work among physics students in order to work together cooperatively.

2.4 Summary of the Review

In summary the literature review has included some studies of relative to the use of teaching strategies associated with students’ interest and achievement in the teaching and learning process in classroom. This chapter begins with an overview of research theoretical framework by experts whose theory is related to the effective use of teaching strategies as well as how it brings about high level of interest and achievement in the learning of students. This chapter has also included literature review on the nature and importance of physics, the senior secondary school physics curriculum, relevant instructional methods in teaching science, existing teaching methods in physics, strategies for effective learning in physics, students’ achievement in physics and how students’ interest can be enhance by motivation.

According to the Wikipedia Encyclopaedia (2000), physics as a science subject attempts to describe the natural world by the application of the scientific method. As a science subject, physics provides for the basic knowledge and understanding of principles whose application contributes greatly to the quality of life in a technologically based society. It will enable the individual in a rapidly changing environment to make intelligent choices about his/her personal well being. It will provide him/her with a basis for judging and taking action on issues related to science that affects every citizen” In this vein physics is very crucial in understanding the world around us, the world in us and world beyond us. It challenges our imaginations with concepts that lead to great discoveries that change one’s life. The teaching of science is carried out in such a manner as to help the learner to understand their environment (Santrock, 2004). The acquired knowledge enables the learner to solve problems encountered in daily life. Hence the teaching of sciences should heighten the curiosity of the learners so as to enable them to undertake scientific enquiry and also enhance their imaginations, initiatives and involvement (Germann, 1991). Scientific knowledge is also meant to enable the learners to appreciate the place of science in the world at large and form and develop a scientific view of it. In his study on the role of instructional approaches, Chapman (2000) notes that learner achievement is highly influenced by the instructional methods employed by the teachers. Santrock (2004) is of the view that instructional methods that are captivating lead to better acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes. According to Nashon (2004), the choice of appropriate teaching methods enables the learner to participate in the learning process, which in turn boosts learner competence in the subject.

According to Piaget (1971), “Essential functions of the mind are formed by developing a foundation consisting of understanding and innovation and constructing reality.” Piaget’s stages of development are all about the ability to learn at different ages in childhood based on logical development. His theory on assimilation and accommodation all have to do with the children’s ability to construct cognitively or individually their new knowledge within their stages and resolve conflicts (Piaget, 1952). Recognizing that this process occurs within each individual student at a different rate helps the teacher facilitate constructivist learning. Piaget’s cognitive constructivism theory incorporates the importance of understanding what each individual to get knowledge and learn at his or her own pace (Powell, & Kalina, 2009).

Aristotle’s theory of knowledge was based on his strong belief in logic. Logic for Aristotle was the necessary tool of any inquiry and the syllogism was the sequence that all logical thought follows. He posited four causes or principles of explanation: the material cause (the substance of which the thing is made); the formal cause (its design); the efficient cause (its maker or builder); and the final cause (its purpose or function). In modern thought the efficient cause is generally considered the central explanation of a thing, but for Aristotle the final cause had primacy.

Bruner’s (1987, 1990) constructivist theory incorporates many of the ideas offered in previous theories. Bruner also argued that categorization and representation are keys to an individual’s cognitive development. His ideas can also be linked to those who propose cognitive information processing models in that he suggests development occurs as mental structures become more elaborate and sophisticated through interaction and experience: “learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so” (Kearsley, 2001). He is concerned with the sequence of representation (the stages), but he is equally concerned with the role of culture on cognitive development.

The literature review has established that the teaching of Physics requires the use of several methods and strategies for effective classroom delivery (Embeywa, 1986; Germann, 1991; Kauchack & Eggen, 1998; Mulei, 1985; Ongosi, 2007; Santrock, 2004 and Twoli, 1986). The strategies commonly used are the inquiry based learning, discovery learning, problem based learning, case-based learning and mastery learning approaches. An integration of different methods is essential for effective learning (German, 1991; Gardini, 1993; Head, 1999; Kesner and Eyring, 1999). The commonly used methods in the teaching of Physics include the lecture method, practical work, question and answer method, project method and the upcoming just-in time method. The literature review has established that methods and strategies that put the learner at the centre of the learning process and make the learners to be actively involved in the learning process yields better results (Katz, 1994; Kibett and Kathuri, 1994; Thomas, 2000; Twoli, 1998; Zhaoyao, 2002). It was further revealed that availability and proper use of learning resources improves learner achievement in Physics (Amadalo, 1993; Embeywa. 1991; Koballa, 2006; Twoli and Maundu, 1998; White, 1998). However, proper utilization of the SDPTS is crucial if the desired results of better learner achievement in Physics are to be yielded. Therefore, the researcher sought to investigate the impact of SDPTS on the learners’ interest and achievement in physics.

2.5 Literature Appraisal

There are certain gaps that was found which hopefully my study SDPTS will investigate and bridge the gaps.

Aristotle’s theory of knowledge was based on his strong belief in logic. Logic for Aristotle was the necessary tool of any inquiry and the syllogism was the sequence that all logical thought follows. He believed that knowledge was supposed to remain unchangeable but perform its function. Knowledge is wide, cannot be change but can be improved. A learner mind has to be open to diverse ideas or knowledge which brings integrate and effective learning. Also it is not just enough to have the knowledge; knowledge without practice cannot be stored in the long-term memory rather in the short-term memory.

Bruner’s (1987, 1990) constructivist theory incorporates many of the ideas offered in previous theories. His ideas can also be linked to those who propose cognitive information processing models in that he suggests development occurs as mental structures become more elaborate and sophisticated through interaction and experience: “learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. He is concerned with the sequence of representation (the stages) enhances effective learning because learning differs in age and helps the teacher to plan his lesson to the level of the leaner. In the learning process, the learner has to not only have a mental picture of the concept, he is to be aware of what the concept and create a way to use the concept in a demonstrative way.

Piaget’s stages of development are all about the ability to learn at different ages in childhood based on logical development. His theory on assimilation and accommodation all have to do with the children’s ability to construct cognitively or individually their new knowledge within their stages and resolve conflicts (Piaget, 1952). His theory did not agree with the fact that any concept can be taught to any child as long as the child can assimilate that concept. Every child should be given the ability to learn more that their stage so as to develop higher mental structure and also the learner should be able to learn the concept using integration of differs strategies.

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